Abstract
Pointe shoes are an essential part of the ballet art form. They enable ballerinas to dance with elegant and precise movement and add aesthetic value to their form. This article will explore the material design, utilization, biomechanics, and physics behind the ballet pointe shoe, providing a holistic understanding of how dancers get en pointe. It will also discuss the evolution of the pointe shoe design, as well as the opportunity for innovation in its future.
Introduction
Many young children dream to one day become a prima ballerina, leaping and spinning effortlessly on their tip toes in front of a starstruck audience. Making this dream a reality takes years of intense training and a special tool: the pointe shoe, which allows ballerinas to balance on their toes while dancing.
Pointe shoes themselves are a type of art that lend to the beauty of ballet. From the aesthetic in creating graceful, elegant lines to the sheer difficulty in technique a dancer must master, the pointe shoe reflects a long history of ballerinas who have challenged the limits of ballet. While many pointe shoe companies have adhered to traditional designs for generations, modern technology creates a compelling opportunity to innovate and improve the shoe. However, doing so requires an understanding and respect for the history, science, and mechanics of the shoe.
Figure 1: Sarah Lamb, principal of the Royal Ballet, en pointe [1]
History of the Pointe Shoe
Ballet has a long and illustrious history. Before the pointe shoe was introduced, ballerinas danced in heeled shoes. In the 1730s, ballet trailblazer Marie Camargo of the Paris Ballet brought in the soft ballet slipper, revolutionizing dance by allowing much greater freedom in movement. A century later, Italian ballerina Amalia Brugnoli introduced the idea of dancing on the tips of the slipper — a graceful concept which grew wildly popular despite its difficulty in the soft shoe [2]. Finally, in 1832, Swedish ballerina Marie Taglioni became the first dancer to complete a full ballet en pointe, using stiff satin and leather slippers that were tightly fitted and secured to her legs with ribbons [3]. Throughout the 19th century, Italian shoemakers evolved the concept of the pointe shoe to the shoe we now all admire on stage. They reinforced the toe box and soles with stronger, stiffer materials and eventually widened the platform into a sturdier oval shape [2].
The Basic Structure of a Shoe
The pointe shoe is a unique type of ballet slipper that provides support for ballerinas to balance on the tips of their toes. The structure of the shoe allows ballerinas to distribute weight around their toes and under their foot’s arch. Unlike soft ballet slippers, pointe shoes have a hard toe box, also referred to as the platform, which is the tip of the shoe the ballerina stands on. Another notable part of the shoe is the shank, which is a stiff but supple outer sole that supports the ballerina’s arch. The vamp of the shoe is the space between the platform to the top of the foot; it can vary in length depending on a dancer’s foot structure. Lastly, pointe shoes are typically secured tightly to the leg with elastic and satin ribbons [3, 4]. The overall shape of the pointe shoe extends the visual line of the dancer’s leg through the foot, creating a graceful and light silhouette.
Figure 2: Basic anatomy of a pointe shoe
Material Design
Traditionally, pointe shoes are painstakingly handmade by shoemakers. Globally renowned companies like Freed craft a majority of their pointe shoes based on dancer customization, such that ballerinas can specifically order shoes to their preferred width and vamp [5]. Because every dancer’s foot is different, there is a large variation among dancers in pointe shoe customization and “break in” preference. A dancer questionnaire revealed that the top 5 characteristics for pointe shoe selection included fit, comfort, platform shape, vamp shape, and durability [3].
The external fabric of the pointe shoe is typically made of corset satin, which is a soft type of cotton that allows for sufficient grip and friction upon the floor [3]. The toe box is composed of varying layers of paper, burlap, and/or cardboard, thickly coated with a type of glue paste to hold it together. The shank of the shoe is typically made of stiff cardboard or leather, supporting the foot’s arch [6]. Although the length, width, and rigidity of the shoe may vary across pointe shoe models and brands, the composition remains largely the same.
Utilization & Customization
The New York City Ballet can go through about 8,500 pointe shoes in one performance season [7]. In fact, the NYCB has an annual dance shoe budget of $780,000, the majority of which is allocated for pointe shoes [8]. Due to the delicate material composition, pointe shoes can wear out within 1-2 days with a professional ballerina’s rigorous use of the shoe, leading to a “dead” pointe shoe. Dead pointe shoes are no longer able to support the dancer properly on their toes and must be switched out.
On the other hand, new pointe shoes are very rigid and stiff. Professional or pre-professional ballerinas will typically “break in” their pointe shoes based on personal preference. For example, some dancers might score the shank with a knife to create more friction on the floor while dancing. Another common practice is to darn the perimeter of the toe box of the shoe to create a raised edge, providing more stability when balancing en pointe. On a more extreme level, some dancers will crush the toe box by stepping on the box with their heel or whacking it against the floor to create a flatter look and elongate the dance line [9]. Other dancers might cut out half of the shank, harden the toe box with jet glue, or rip out the pin holding the shank and outer fabric together — the possibilities of customization are endless, and the constant practice of “breaking in” one’s pointe shoes has almost become a kind of personalized ritual for a ballerina.
Figure 3: Tools used for preparing pointe shoes [10]
Ballerinas also usually use some kind of padding inside the pointe shoe for added comfort or injury prevention. These inserts include a wide range of items, such as gel toe pads, tape, paper towels, or corn cushions [11].
Younger dancers are typically trained more formally in their pointe shoes. Rather than customization, intermediate ballerinas start their pointe journey with thick toe pads and a minimal breaking in of the shoe. They also practice pointe shoe exercises in brief sessions to start, gradually developing the necessary technique. It is dangerous for a dancer to learn pointe without the proper training and anatomical capability. Currently, there is no universal method for assessing a dancer’s readiness for progressing to pointe [12]. The primary evaluation is typically chronological age; it is suggested that 11 years old is an adequate age corresponding to expected strength and experience [13]. Some other assessment methods include movement execution; teachers may evaluate the dancer’s ability to execute basic pointe forms, such as relevé en pointe.
Biomechanics of relevé en pointe
Relevé en pointe is arguably the most important foundational pointe movement. In this form, the dancer moves from a standing position to the pointe position on top of the toe box. So exactly how do dancers get up there?
The relevé en pointe position begins with the dancer standing with their feet turned out. The dancer then bends their knees, maintaining their hip turnout, in a position called plié. This results in ankle dorsiflexion, which is a movement of the foot that decreases the angle between the shin and the vertical top of the foot. Then, the dancer pushes up onto the toes by extending the knees and entering a full ankle plantarflexion position, where the foot is pointed as much as possible. At this point, the knees are completely straight and the majority of the dancer’s weight bears upon the toes [12, 15].
Figure 4: Diagram of the progression of relevé en pointe modified from [16]
A common pointe readiness evaluation examines the ankle’s range of movement in relevé en pointe. The ideal execution of this movement should achieve between 80-100 degrees of dorsiflexion as well as at least 90 degrees in plantarflexion in the foot’s metatarsal and phalangeal joints [13]. This position ensures the safest relevé en pointe, because the ankle is fully stabilized in this bone alignment.
In conjunction with the biomechanical capability for relevé en pointe, a ballerina must be able to achieve balance on their toes. Balancing in relevé, which is already challenging in regular ballet slippers, becomes significantly more difficult en pointe because of the platform’s small surface area. Balance is a fundamental principle of ballet and relies on the concept of center of mass, where all of the mass of an object is considered to be concentrated. When an object’s center of mass is distributed perfectly in all directions, the object is balanced. Thus, when a dancer moves en pointe, their center of mass must be maintained in the core right above the supporting foot on the ground [17]. This requires strength in the abdominal, calf, and gluteal muscles, as dancers must engage their core and legs to achieve stability and control in this form.
Figure 5: Center of mass illustrated in the arabesque en pointe form
Due to the posture of the en pointe position, a ballerina’s toes are subjected to 12-13 times their body weight and more than 3 times the regular pressure [12]. The pressure is mainly applied upon the inner edge of the big toe, which causes the big toe to tilt outward into an unnatural anatomical position. Interestingly, there is little to no substantial pressure upon the arch or heel of the foot, which are both naturally stronger than the forefoot [14]. Overall, the position of being en pointe is inherently unnatural for the foot, highlighting a ballerina’s commendable resilience to stay en pointe for hours on end.
Because of the abnormal amount of pressure upon a dancer’s forefoot, it becomes even more imperative that the pointe shoe can properly support the dancer’s posture. Professional dancers constantly have to switch out their dead shoes in order to avoid injury, as dead shoes become too soft to maintain shock absorption and structural integrity [18]. In a dead shoe, weight is no longer distributed equally across the foot — instead, the loading forces gather at the top of the foot, as if dancers were dancing in bare feet [19]. A study examining the difference between new and dead pointe shoes showed that dancers experienced a significant increase in risky biomechanics in dead shoes [18]. In dead shoes used for 100+ hours in training, dancers experienced higher sway area and tibialis anterior muscle activation, the tibialis anterior being the muscle along the shin that enables ankle dorsiflexion [18, 20]. Overuse of the tibialis anterior over time can lead to chronic ankle and tendon injuries. Thus, it is imperative for dancers to maintain the health of their pointe shoes and swap them out when appropriate.
Over time, dancers may often observe physiological changes in their feet bones, such as bone tissue thickening of the metatarsals — the five bones between the ankles and toes [3, 14]. Common physiological injuries mostly due to rigorous practice include bunions, traumatized toenails, blisters, and tendonitis. More severely, ankle sprains, osteoarthritis, and stress fractures can also occur due to the abnormal pressure on the foot [14]. According to a 2008 study conducted by a team of American physiologists, these types of ankle and foot overuse injuries occur in 14-57% of female dancers [21].
Friction
Beyond mastering physical technique, a dancer must also be able to leverage the physics principle of friction, a type of resistive force formed when two surfaces come into contact [17]. Friction is necessary for the dancer to maintain grip and traction on the floor, which helps them avoid slipping during quick movements. Dancers may sprinkle water on the floor or rub crushed rosin into their shoes to increase friction [9]. Interestingly, the type of rosin ballerinas step into is the same kind of rosin string musicians use on their bows [22]. One of the most common applications of friction, alongside principles like angular momentum and inertia, is the movement of pirouette en pointe. When a dancer moves into a pirouette turn, their angular momentum, or rotational momentum of their body, propels them through the spin. The inertia, or the body’s resistance to movement, and the friction of the toe on the ground gradually slows the dancer down so they may complete the pirouette [23]. Although friction is an external factor, dancers must learn to master it to execute pointe movements effectively and with control.
Innovation and the future
The design and composition of pointe shoes have remained relatively the same over hundreds of years. Every year, ballet companies spend hundreds of thousands on shoes that demand meticulous customization, wear out within days, and contribute to numerous injuries. Of course, the craft continues on. While the traditional craft endures on, it is far past time to explore potential improvements to the pointe shoe.
At the very least, there has been some research in recent years targeting the material composition of the pointe shoe. While many pointe shoes maintain the traditional makeup of paper, burlap, and cardboard, recently some companies have pivoted to synthetic materials such as moldable rubber and lightweight foam, providing a more resilient and pliable experience [3, 4]. Gaynor Minden, a popular American pointe shoe brand, is at the forefront of these nontraditional compositions; their pointe shoes implement flexible polymers called elastomerics, which don’t deform over time and therefore last longer [3].
Act’ble, an innovative pointe shoe company founded by former ballet professional Sophia Lindner, is forging a completely new path forward in the dance world. Act’ble has created the world’s first 3D printed pointe shoe sold in the industry: the Act’Pointe. The Act’Pointe is made with recyclable materials that can last up to 5 times longer than the traditional shoe. Its lacing system helps distribute force more optimally across the foot.This utilization of shock-absorption technology and carbon fiber reinforcements may potentially reduce the chronic foot and ankle injuries that have long plagued professional dancers. Moreover, 3D printing as a media opens up the opportunity for mass customized production, addressing the possibility of dancers facing delays due to backlogged shoemaker orders [24].
Figure 6: Act’Pointes: 3D printed pointe shoes [24]
The first introduction of Act’Pointes into ballet studios has prompted various negative commentary within the dance community. While the functionality of the Act’ble shoe (Figure 6) remains the same, the design diverges strongly from the traditional visual. Some dancers argue that re-innovating the pointe shoe with modern technology can disrespect the culture of ballet technique and craftsmanship. Certainly, ballet thrives on tradition, preserving centuries-old stories like Swan Lake and The Nutcracker. However, with each retelling of these stories, artists introduce new interpretations, choreographies, and styles into the ballet community. So, in the same way that ballet has evolved, its tools should continue to evolve as well. In its own way, pointe shoe innovation can be regarded as respecting ballet by protecting the health and longevity of ballerinas who perform the art.
Ultimately, with today’s technology, there is significant potential to grow and improve the pointe shoe while maintaining integrity to its original form. This balance of tradition and progress can foster a new era in ballet, once again pushing the boundaries of what ballerinas may be able to accomplish in their art someday.
Other Resources
For some further reading, please check out the following:
- Journal article: Pointe Shoes: A History of Reinvention, Commodification, and Mystification
- Journal article: The Effects of Pointe Shoes on Ballet Dancers’ Biomechanics, Muscle Activity, Movement and Symptoms: A Scoping Review
- Art magazine article on the making of Capezio pointe shoes: When the Shoe Fits, Dance In It
For other multimedia resources, please check out the following:
- YouTube video: How Royal Ballet dancers prepare their pointe shoes
- Podcast episode: On Pointe by Articles of Interest about the design of pointe shoes
- YouTube video: NYC Ballet Presents Pointe Shoes
Reference List
[1] Sarah Lamb Biography. 2019. Available: https://www.rbo.org.uk/people/sarah-lamb
[2] J. Guiheen, “The History of Pointe Shoes: The Landmark Moments That Made Ballet’s Signature Shoe What It Is Today,” Pointe Magazine, Aug. 04, 2020. https://pointemagazine.com/history-of-pointe-shoes/#gsc.tab=0
[3] B. W. Cunningham, A. F. DiStefano, N. A. Kirjanov, S. E. Levine, and L. C. Schon, “A comparative mechanical analysis of the pointe shoe toe box. An in vitro study,” The American Journal of Sports Medicine, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 555–561, 1998, doi: 10.1177/03635465980260041501.
[4] “About Pointe Shoes,” Gaynor Minden. https://dancer.com/ballet-info/about-pointe-shoes/peek-inside/
[5] “Freed USA,” Freed of London. https://www.freedoflondon.com
[6] Suffolk, “How Suffolk Pointe Shoes Are Made | Suffolk Dance,” www.youtube.com, Jan. 24, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gLWBlzzCFEI
[7] M. Fuhrer, “The Secrets of New York City Ballet’s Pointe Shoe Room,” Dance Spirit, Mar. 05, 2018. https://dancespirit.com/the-secrets-of-new-york-city-ballets-pointe-shoe-room/#:~:text=Deep%20in%20the%20basement%20of
[8] R. Fierberg, “How Many Pairs of Pointe Shoes Do the New York City Ballet and American Ballet Theatre Go Through Each Year?,” Playbill, Feb. 27, 2022. https://playbill.com/article/how-many-pairs-of-pointe-shoes-do-the-new-york-city-ballet-and-american-ballet-theatre-go-through-each-year
[9] INSIDER, “How Ballerinas Customize Their Pointe Shoes,” YouTube. Sep. 08, 2018. [YouTube Video]. Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9tISaWeO9q8
[10] The Australian Ballet, “En Pointe!,” YouTube. Nov. 15, 2011. Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P1w8zbEf_Qg
[11] M. Maher, “A Better Pointe Shoe Is Sorely Needed,” Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation, May 28, 2020. https://invention.si.edu/better-pointe-shoe-sorely-needed
[12] K. P. Veirs et al., “Effects of Dancer-Specific Biomechanics on Adolescent Ballet Dancers’ Posture En Pointe and Factors Related to Pointe Readiness: A Cross-Sectional Study,” Medical problems of performing artists, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 155–163, 2023, doi: 10.21091/mppa.2023.3019.
[13] S. Shah, “Readiness for Dancing En Pointe,” Physical medicine and rehabilitation clinics of North America, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 87–102, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.pmr.2020.09.004.
[14] A. S. Tuckman, F. W. Werner, and J. C. Bayley, “Analysis of the Forefoot on Pointe in the Ballet Dancer,” Foot & Ankle, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 144–148, 1991, doi: 10.1177/107110079101200303.
[15] C.-F. Lin, F.-C. Su, and H.-W. Wu, “Ankle biomechanics of ballet Dancers in relevé en pointé dance,” Research in Sports Medicine, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 23–35, 2005, doi:
[16] Royal Opera House, “Insight: Ballet glossary – relevé,” YouTube. Feb. 25, 2011. Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dim7AaoQrC8
[17] E. Wisung, “Where Art Meets Science: The Physics Behind Ballet – The Lewis Foundation of Classical Ballet,” The Lewis Foundation of Classical Ballet (TLFCB), Jun. 27, 2024. https://www.thelewisfoundation.org/2024/06/physics-meets-ballet/
[18] J. Aquino, T. Amasay, S. Shapiro, Y.-T. Kuo, and J. P. Ambegaonkar, “Lower extremity biomechanics and muscle activity differ between ‘new’ and ‘dead’ pointe shoes in professional ballet dancers,” Sports Biomechanics, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 469–480, 2021, doi: 10.1080/14763141.2018.1561931
[19] M. Meier, “The Dangers of Dancing on Dead Pointe Shoes—And 5 Ways to Prevent Injury,” Dance Magazine, Feb. 05, 2020. https://www.dancemagazine.com/dead-pointe-shoes/#gsc.tab=0
[20] “Understanding Muscles on the Shin Bone: Anatomy Explained,” Certified Foot & Ankle Specialists, Jul. 09, 2024. https://certifiedfoot.com/unveiling-mysteries-muscles-shin-bone/#:~:text=Tibialis%20anterior%20muscle%3A%20Positioned%20along
[21] J. M. Gamboa, L. A. Roberts, J. Maring, and A. Fergus, “Injury Patterns in Elite Preprofessional Ballet Dancers and the Utility of Screening Programs to Identify Risk Characteristics,” J. Orthop. Sports Phys. Ther., vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 126–136, 2008, doi: 10.2519/jospt.2008.2390
[22] J. A. Chien, “Ballet Myth Busters,” San Francisco Ballet, Oct. 22, 2021. https://www.sfballet.org/discover/backstage/ballet-myth-busters-5/
[23] R. Kunzig, “The Physicist Who Figured Out Ballet,” Discover, Oct. 10, 2019. https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/the-physicist-who-figured-out-ballet
[24] C. Schergna, “Act’ble: An ‘en pointe’ revolution,” DEVELOP3D, Jun. 28, 2023. https://develop3d.com/product-design/actble-an-en-pointe-revolution
